Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity of a Bioactive Restorative Material Versus a Glass-Ionomer Cement on Streptococcus Mutans: In-Vitro Study.

BACKGROUND: Dental caries management consists of both preventive and restorative approaches. Pediatric dentists can rely on many techniques and materials to restore decayed teeth, but a high failure rate is still observed, mainly due to secondary caries. New restorative bioactive materials combine the mechanical and aesthetic characteristics of resinous materials with the capability to remineralize and the antimicrobial properties of glass ionomers, thus counteracting the occurrence of secondary caries. The aim of this study was to assess the antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans of a bioactive restorative material (ACTIVA™ BioActive-Restorative™-Pulpdent©) and a glass ionomer cement with silver particles added (Ketac™ Silver-3M©), using agar diffusion assay. METHODS: Each material was formed into disks of 4 mm in diameter, and four discs of each material were placed on nine agar plates. The analysis was repeated seven times. RESULTS: Both materials showed statistically significant growth inhibition properties against S. mutans (p < 0.05). The difference in the effectiveness of the two materials was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Both ACTIVA™ and Ketac™ Silver can be recommended since both are similarly effective against S. mutans. However ACTIVA™, given its bioactivity and better aesthetics and mechanical properties compared to GICs, may provide better clinical performance.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Pediatric Dentistry: Insights from an Italian Cross-Sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on pediatric dentistry and also dental education. This study aimed to assess the observed changes in children's oral health by pediatric dentists and also served as an educational tool for dentistry students during the pandemic. METHODS: Postgraduate students in pediatric dentistry prepared a survey addressed to Italian pediatric dentists. Over 5476 dentists were invited to participate, and collaboration among the students took place through virtual meetings and electronic platforms. The online questionnaire was composed of 29 questions focusing on the management of pediatric patients during and after the lockdown period. A descriptive statistic was used for data analysis, and chi-square tests were performed (p < 0.05). RESULTS: A total of 1752 pediatric dentists participated in the survey. During the lockdown, 68.3% of dentists exclusively handled dental emergencies. In the subsequent semester, a significant decrease in the number of pediatric treatments was reported. Pediatric dentists also noted a decline in children's oral hygiene practices, a deterioration in dietary habits, and an increase in anxiety during dental procedures. CONCLUSIONS: This survey shed light on the diverse effects of the pandemic on children's oral health and also provided valuable educational insights.

Adolescents and primary herpetic gingivostomatitis: an Italian overview.

AIM: The aim of this study was to investigate the therapies administered to Italian adolescents with primary herpetic gingivostomatitis (PHGS) METHODS: The medical records of 74 adolescents with PHSG were reviewed. The following data were recorded: age, gender, day of onset, type of treatment, lesions' severity, pain scoring, eating, and drinking ability. The oral examination was performed at the first evaluation (T0) and after one week (T1). RESULTS: All patients showed up at the first visit at least 48 h after the onset of symptoms. No patient was prescribed an antiviral therapy. An antibiotic therapy was prescribed in order to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Fifteen patients had been treated with non alcoholic chlorhexidine rinses (group A), 29 patients with non alcoholic chlorhexidine rinses plus hyaluronic acid gel (group B); 30 patients with non alcoholic chlorhexidine rinses plus Mucosyte® (group C). A significant improvement of the pain scoring and lesions' severity was noted in group C. CONCLUSION: In Italian adolescents, PHGS is diagnosed at least 48 h after onset and the antibiotic therapy is widely prescribed in order to prevent overinfections. Among topical therapies, an association of verbascoside and sodium hyaluronhate seems to favour a faster healing.

Coronavirus Disease-2019 and dental practice: A project on the use of ozonized water in the water circuit of the dental armchair.

A novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) is associated with human-to-human transmission. From its beginning in December 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak has spread globally from Wuhan and is now declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). The person-to-person transmission routes of 2019-nCoV includes direct transmission, such as cough, sneeze, droplet inhalation transmission, and contact transmission, such as the contact with oral, nasal and eye mucous membranes. The participants in dental practice are exposed to a severe risk of 2019-nCoV infections because of the face-to-face communication and the exposure to saliva, blood, and other body fluids. Dental professionals play great roles in preventing the transmission of 2019-nCoV. Since ozone has a proven anti-viral action, we present a project on the use of ozonized water in the water circuit of the dental armchair, in order to lower the viral load during dental practice in dental clinics and hospitals.

Efficacy of ozonized water for the treatment of erosive oral lichen planus: a randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND: Management of erosive Oral Lichen Planus (eOLP) is challenging. Currently, topical corticosteroids are widely used as first-line therapy, but they might be associated with side-effects and incomplete clinical response. Among non-pharmacological strategies, ozone at low medical concentration has proven to induce a mild activation of protective antioxidant pathways, thus exerting therapeutic effects in many inflammatory diseases. The aim of this randomized controlled study was to investigate the effectiveness of ozonized water in association with conventional topical corticosteroids for the treatment of eOLP. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fifty-one patients were included in the study and randomized into 2 groups: study group (n = 26) included patients receiving ozonized water treatment; control group (n = 25) included patients receiving placebo treatment (i.e. double-distilled water). Treatment protocol consisted of 1-minute oral rinses, repeated for 4 times, twice a week for 4 weeks. All patients received conventional corticosteroid topical therapy (betamethasone soluble tablets, 2 rinses/day for 4 weeks). Assessment of size of lesions, sign and pain scores was performed before treatment, after 2 weeks of treatment (T1) and at the end of 4-week treatment (T2). Efficacy Index (EI) of treatment, candidiasis and relapse rates were also recorded. RESULTS: All patients experienced significant improvement of sign and pain scores with a higher rate of improvement in ozone-treated group (T1 improvement rates: Thongprasom 92.2% vs 28%; VAS pain 76.9% vs 32%; p < 0.05). Pain and size reduction were significantly higher in ozone-treated group both at T1 and T2 (p < 0.05). Ozone-treated group showed a higher EI at every time point (T0-T2: 72.77% vs 37.66%, p < 0.01). Candidiasis (32% vs 11.5%) and relapse (40% vs 34.6%) rates were higher in control group, however the differences were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Within the limitations of this study, ozonized water seems to be effective as an adjunct therapy, in combination with topical corticosteroids, for the treatment of eOLP

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Photobiomodulation therapy for the management of recurrent aphthous stomatitis in children: clinical effectiveness and parental satisfaction

BACKGROUND: This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) in the treatment of minor recurrent aphthous stomatitis (MiRAS) in children, in terms of pain relief, lesion size reduction and the parental satisfaction of the therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This randomized controlled study was carried out on 60 children with clinical diagnosis of MiRAS. Patients were randomized into two groups: group A receiving laser therapy and group B receiving sham therapy (placebo). Laser therapy (diode laser, Lamba: 645 nm) was administered on day 1 (T0) for three consecutive days. Patients were evaluated also on day 4 (T1), on day 7 (T2) and on day 10 (T3). Oral aphthous lesions size was assessed through a periodontal probe to measure the diameter length (mm); pain was evaluated through the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS); parental satisfaction was assessed through a questionnaire. RESULTS: The difference in the reduction of ulcers diameters between the two groups resulted statistically significant at T1 and at T2 (p<0.05). A statistically significant difference in pain reduction between two groups was found at T1 (p<0.05). No statistically significant difference between the two groups of parents was found as concerns the parental acceptance of the procedure and the discomfort for the need of multiple appointments. CONCLUSIONS: PBMT is to be considered effective in the treatment of MiRAS in children and well-accepted by the parents of the children themselves

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Does Streptococcus Salivarius Strain M18 Assumption Make Black Stains Disappear in Children?

PURPOSE: This randomised controlled study evaluated the effectiveness of an oral probiotic, Streptococcus salivarius M18 (SsM18), in children with black stains (BSs) in order to counteract their reformation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty-eight children (aged 4-10 years) presenting with BSs were enrolled. They were randomly divided into two groups: group A (n = 29) included children who were given the test product containing SsM18 once a day for 3 months; group B (n = 29) included children who did not receive any treatment. Before beginning the study, all the children underwent professional removal of BSs. The assessment of BSs was done after 3 months (T1) and after 6 months (T2). RESULTS: Four patients (1 belonging to group A and 3 to group B) were excluded from the study because they started antibiotic therapy. After 3 months (T1), BSs were detected in 6 of the 28 children (21.2%) from group A and in 13 out of the 26 (50%) children from group B (p < 0.05). After 6 months (T2), BSs were detected in 9 out of the 28 (32.1%) children from group A and in 14 of the 26 (53.8%) children from group B (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: BSs formation in children could be prevented by administering S. salivarius M18.

Efficacy of the photobiomodulation therapy in the treatment of the burning mouth syndrome

BACKGROUND: This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of the photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) - in terms of pain and of quality of life- in patients affected by burning mouth syndrome (BMS). MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study was designed as a randomised double-blinded prospective study. Patients diagnosed with BMS in the period from June 2015 to June 2018 were recruited. The patients were randomised into two groups and each received treatment once a week for ten weeks: group A received laser therapy (K Laser Cube 3(R)) while group B was given sham therapy (placebo). Pain was evaluated through the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and quality of life was assessed with the short form of the Oral Health Impact Profile (OHIP-14). Assessment was done at baseline and after every therapy session. The researchers were blind to the randomised allocations. RESULTS: A total of 85 patients were analysed. Group A (laser treatment) was composed of 43 patients while group B (sham therapy) of 42 patients. Patients treated with PBMT showed a significant decrease in symptoms (p = 0.0008) and improved quality of life related to oral health (p = 0.0002). CONCLUSIONS: PBMT has demonstrated to have a positive effect in relieving BMS symptoms and in improving a patient's overall quality of life

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Genetic and developmental disorders of the oral mucosa: Epidemiology; molecular mechanisms; diagnostic criteria; management.

A large number of disorders may affect the oral cavity, including genetic diseases, infections, cancers, blood diseases, skin diseases, endocrine and metabolic disorders, autoimmune and rheumatologic diseases, local lesions, to name a few. Oral mucosa shows a considerable variation in its normal structure and a wide range of conditions may affect it. Such conditions are often harmless or minor and could be primary or secondary to systemic disease. Several of them are quite rare and, hence, the diagnosis is not easy. Clinically, lesions may appear as ulcers, discoloration of the oral mucosa and alterations in size and configuration of oral anatomy. Genetic disorders have specific manifestations and can be caused by a derangement of one or more components of the tissue. Many of them follow the skin or systemic signs of the underlying genetic disease, but in a few cases oral signs could be the first manifestation of the disorder. Among them genodermatoses are prominent. They are inherited disorders characterized by a multisystem involvement. This review describes chondro-ectodermal dysplasia, dyskeratosis congenita, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, hereditary benign intraepithelial dyskeratosis, keratosis follicularis, lipoid proteinosis, multiple hamartoma syndrome, pachyonychia congenita, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, tuberous sclerosis and white sponge nevus. Other genetic disorders not included in the genodermatosis group and reported in the present review are: acanthosis nigricans, angio-osteo-hypertrophic syndrome, encephalotrigeminal angiomatosis, familial adenomatous polyposis, focal dermal hypoplasia, focal palmoplantar and oral mucosa hyperkeratosis syndrome, gingival fibromatosis, Maffucci's syndrome, neurofibromatosis (type 1) and oro-facial-digital syndrome (type 1). Disorders during embryonic development might lead to a wide range of abnormalities in the oral cavity; some of them are quite common but of negligible concern, whereas others are rare but serious, affecting not only the oral mucosa, but also other structures of the oral cavity (ie palate, tongue and gingiva). Fordyce's granules, leukoedema, cysts of the oral mucosa in newborns, retrocuspid papilla, geographic tongue, fissured tongue, median rhomboid glossitis, hairy tongue, lingual varices and lingual thyroid nodule are described. This review may help dentists, dental hygienists, but also general internists and pediatricians to diagnose different disorders of the oral mucosa, to understand the pathogenesis and to schedule a treatment plan.

Effectiveness of a spray containing 1% malic acid in patients with xerostomia induced by graft-versus-host disease

Background: To evaluate the clinical effectiveness of a topical sialogogue spray (malic acid, 1%) in the treatment of xerostomia in patients with chronic Graft versus Host Disease (cGVHD). Material and Methods: This study was designed as a randomized double-blind clinical study. Twenty-eight patients with cGVHD suffering from xerostomia were divided into 2 groups: the first group (14 patients) received a topical sialagogue spray containing malic acid 1% (SalivAktive(R)) whereas the second group (14 patients) received a placebo. Both groups received treatment for 2 weeks. Dry Mouth Questionnaire (DMQ) scores and unstimulated salivary flows rate were collected before and after treatment. Results: DMQ scores increased significantly from 1.3 ± 0.4 to 3.5 ± 0.4 points (p<0.05) after two weeks of treat-ment with malic acid, whereas in the control group DMQ scores increased from 1.2 ± 0.7 points to 1.4 ± 0.6 (p>0.05). The unstimulated salivary flow rate in patients treated with malic acid increased significantly from 0.15 ± 0.06 mL/min to 0.24± 0.08 mL/min, while that of the patients treated with placebo went from 0.16 ± 0.07 mL/ min to 0.17 ± 0.09 mL/min (p>0.05). Conclusions: Malic acid 1% spray can be considered effective in the treatment of GVHD induced xerostomia

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Oral mucosal lesions in electronic cigarettes consumers versus former smokers.

OBJECTIVES: Electronic cigarettes (ECs) have become very popular in recent years. However, many uncertainties remain about their side effects. This study aims to evaluate the prevalence and characteristics of oral mucosal lesions (OMLs) in former smokers compared to ECs consumers. METHODS: A prospective case-control study was carried out. Outpatients for dental consultation were consecutively enrolled into two groups based on their habits, i.e. former smokers and ECs consumers. Each patient was examined to detect possible oral lesions and, if needed, a swab or biopsy of the lesion was taken for diagnosis. Data was entered into a spreadsheet and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 90 patients were examined, 45 were former smokers (group A) and 45 were ECs consumers (group B). OMLs were detected in 55 cases, of which 19/55 (34.6%) belonged to group A and 36/55 (65.4%) to group B. Nicotine stomatitis, a hairy tongue and angular cheilitis resulted to be significantly more common among EC consumers. CONCLUSIONS: We found no statistically significant differences in terms of total prevalence of OMLs between former smokers and ECs consumers. An increased prevalence of three specific types of OMLs was detected among ECs consumers.

Oral mucosal lesions in teenagers: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Adolescence is a period of transition to adulthood. Little is known about oral mucosal lesions (OMLs) in teenagers, in which the emergence of new habits, unfamiliar to children, could affect the type of lesions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the distribution of oral mucosal lesions (OMLs) in a wide sample of adolescents. METHODS: A retrospective cross-sectional study was carried out examining all medical records of adolescents (aged 13-18 years) treated at the Dental Clinic of the University of Brescia (Italy) in the period from 2008 to 2014. Cases with OMLs were selected. Data regarding age, gender, type of OML, bad habits, systemic chronic diseases were collected. RESULTS: A total of 6.374 medical records (mean age 15.2 + -1.7 years) were examined. We found 1544 cases (31.7%) of oral mucosal lesions; 36 different types of mucosal alterations were detected and the most frequent were: aphthous ulcers (18%), traumatic ulcerations (14.3%), herpes simplex virus (11%), geographic tongue (9.6%), candidiasis (5.5%), and morsicatio buccarum (4.7%). Papilloma virus lesions (1.7%), piercing-related lesions (4%), multiform erythema (0.13%), oral lichen planus (0.13%) and granular cell tumour (0.06%) were also diagnosed. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of OMLs in adolescents are different from those in children and, in some conditions, it could increase with age.

Dental trauma and bicycle safety: a report in Italian children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: This retrospective study aims to analyze the pattern of oro-facial trauma from bicycle accidents in Italian children and adolescents, focusing on the safety devices used. METHODS: The medical records of 1405 patients of the Dental Clinic of the University of Brescia, between the age of 0 to 18, who experienced a dento-facial trauma from the use of a bicycle, were analyzed. Data regarding age, gender, weight, height, dominant hand, type of bicycle, use of safety devices, location and type of dental trauma, teeth involved, bone fractures and soft tissue lesions were recorded. Statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: The majority of the traumatic events occurred in children within the 8-10 years of age-range; 1085 teeth were injured, of which 975 permanent teeth (89.9%) and 110 primary teeth (10.1%). The most common dental lesions were the coronal fractures (complicated and not complicated) while the most frequently involved teeth were the upper central incisors; 11% of patients were also treated for maxillo-facial fractures. A protective helmet was worn only in 3% of the cases; not one patient wore a mouth-guard. The use of helmets was more frequent in children and adolescents riding racing-bikes competitively, compared to those who were mountain bikers (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Bicycle accidents can have serious oro-facial consequences. Therefore, national and regional efforts should be made in Italy to promote head and mouth protection in cycling.

Odontoblastic Cell Quantification and Apoptosis within Pulp of Deciduous Teeth Versus Pulp of Permanent Teeth.

OBJECTIVE: While the odontoblast ability to respond to injury in permanent teeth (PT) is well established, there is a lack of knowledge about deciduous teeth (DT). Aim of this study was to compare the odontoblasts activity within the pulp of DT versus the pulp of PT. STUDY DESIGN: Dental pulp was obtained from forty-two DT and twenty-seven PT extracted from sixty-five patients (aged 6-16 years). Histomorphometry was carried out and the quantification of odontoblastic layer was assessed. Dental pulps of DT and PT were stained for anti-ssDNA, BCL-2, BCL-x, BAX, caspase3. RESULTS: Pulps from DT were characterized by reduction of odontoblastic layer and greater occurrence of apoptotic odontoblasts. Pro-apoptotic BAX phenotype expression on odontoblasts correlated with the occurrence of numerous activated caspase3 odontoblasts in DT. The number of BAX positive cells was significantly higher compared to BCL-2 positive cells in the odontoblastic layer of the DT (p=0.03). Since BAX and BCL-2 proteins have an inverse role in the regulation of the apoptosis, this finding suggests that odontoblasts have a predominant pro-apoptotic phenotype in DT. CONCLUSION: According to our results, the odontoblasts of DT can be assumed to have a lower reparative activity if compared to odontoblasts of PT.

Low-level laser therapy for treatment of chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis in childhood: a randomized double-blind controlled study.

The aim of this study was to verify if low-level laser therapy could be useful to reduce chemotherapy-related oral mucositis grading and pain in childhood undergoing chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind clinical trial was carried out. Patients from 3 to 18 years of age undergoing cancer therapy and presenting OM grade 2 or more were eligible for this study. Patients were randomly divided in two groups: group A received laser therapy from the day of OM diagnosis and other 3 consecutive days (830 nm wavelength, power 150 mW, spot size 1 cm(2), 30 s per cm(2), energy density 4.5 J/cm(2)); group B received sham therapy (placebo) with the same timing. Two blind clinicians performed OM scoring and pain evaluation at day 1 (immediately before the beginning of laser treatment-T0), day 4 (after finishing laser therapy cycle-T1) and at day 7 (T2) as follow-up. A total of 123 patients were included in the study. Group A was composed of 62 children while group B is 61; in both groups, there was a progressive reduction in grade of OM, and at day 7, not every mucosal lesion disappeared. The difference in the decline of OM grading between the two groups resulted not statistically significant (p = 0.07). A statistically significant difference in pain reduction between two groups both at T1 and at T2 (p < 0.005) was observed. This study demonstrated the efficacy of LLLT in reducing pain due to chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis in children, while no significant benefit was noted in reducing OM grade.

Timetable for oral prevention in childhood--developing dentition and oral habits: a current opinion.

As most of the etiologic factors of malocclusion are of genetic origin and thus cannot be prevented, environmental causative factors have become the focus for correction. Early interception of oral habits may be an important step in order to prevent occlusal disturbances in children. The identification of an abnormal habit and the assessment of its potential immediate and long-term effects on the dentition and potentially on the craniofacial complex should be made at an early stage. This paper focuses on the most common oral habits influencing dentofacial growth in childhood and management of these habits in the developing dentition.

Taste dysfunction in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: Clinical evaluation in children.

The aim of this study was to determine the variability of TD in children undergoing HSCT. Cases were identified as consecutively enrolled children in the period January 2011-January 2013 among patients attending the Paediatric Department of Spedali Civili of Brescia and all candidates to HSCT. The TST was conducted in two phases: identification of threshold values and identification of perceived stimulus intensity. Sixteen sapid solutions with four flavors (sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, and quinine hydrochloride) at four different concentrations were administered in a random sequence. The same protocol was administered at different time intervals: before starting the conditioning therapy (T0), during the conditioning therapy (T1) (two times), and every three months (two times) after engraftment post-HSCT (T2). A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Fifty-one children (29 female and 22 male, mean age 5.2 ± 0.7 yr) were enrolled. Threshold value means for the four flavors increased during HSCT conditioning therapy (T1) (p < 0.01); intensity of perceived stimulus decreased during HSCT conditioning therapy (p < 0.01). At six months after engraftment (T2), both parameters had returned to starting values (T0). Changes in taste perception in children undergoing HSCT seem to occur especially during the conditioning therapy and resolve in about six months after engraftment post-HSCT.

Feeding and smoking habits as cumulative risk factors for early childhood caries in toddlers, after adjustment for several behavioral determinants: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Several maternal health determinants during the first period of life of the child, as feeding practice, smoking habit and socio-economic level, are involved in early childhood health problems, as caries development. The potential associations among early childhood caries, feeding practices, maternal and environmental smoking exposure, Socio-Economic Status (SES) and several behavioral determinants were investigated. METHODS: Italian toddlers (n = 2395) aged 24-30 months were recruited and information on feeding practices, sweet dietary habit, maternal smoking habit, SES, and fluoride supplementation in the first year of life was obtained throughout a questionnaire administered to mothers. Caries lesions in toddlers were identified in visual/tactile examinations and classified using the International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS). Associations between toddlers' caries data and mothers' questionnaire data were assessed using chi-squared test. Ordinal logistic regression was used to analyze associations among caries severity level (ICDAS score), behavioral factors and SES (using mean housing price per square meter as a proxy). RESULTS: Caries prevalence and severity levels were significantly lower in toddlers who were exclusively breastfed and those who received mixed feeding with a moderate-high breast milk component, compared with toddlers who received low mixed feeding and those exclusively fed with formula (p < 0.01). No moderate and high caries severity levels were observed in an exclusively breastfed children. High caries severity levels were significantly associated with sweet beverages (p < 0.04) and SES (p < 0.01). Toddlers whose mothers smoked five or more cigarettes/day during pregnancy showed a higher caries severity level (p < 0.01) respect to those whose mothers did not smoke. Environmental exposure to smoke during the first year of life was also significantly associated with caries severity (odds ratio =7.14, 95% confidence interval = 6.07-7.28). No association was observed between caries severity level and fluoride supplementation. More than 50% of toddlers belonging to families with a low SES, showed moderate or high severity caries levels (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Higher caries severity levels were observed in toddlers fed with infant formula and exposed to smoke during pregnancy living in area with a low mean housing price per square meter.

Epithelial expression of vanilloid and cannabinoid receptors: a potential role in burning mouth syndrome pathogenesis.

Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is an intra-oral burning sensation for which presently no medical or dental causes have been found, and in which the oral mucosa appears normal. It remains an unknown disease for which there is still no long-term treatment. The aim of this study was to assess the epithelial alteration of transient receptor potential vanilloid channel type 1 (TRPV1) and cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1) and type 2 (CB2) in the human tongue. The study was performed on eight healthy controls and eight BMS patients. All patients underwent a 3-mm punch biopsy at the anterolateral aspect of the tongue close to the tip. TRPV1, CB1 and CB2 immuno-histochemistry was carried out showing an altered expression of all receptors. In BMS patients there was increased TRPV1, decreased CB1 and increased CB2 expression in tongue epithelial cells also associated with a change in their distribution. It would appear that these receptors are related to BMS. These data could be useful for future characterization of BMS epithelial markers and therapy.